Notes

1. Francis Fukuyama, "The End of History?" National Interest (Summer 1989): 3­19. See also "Time to Call History a Day?" The Economist 16 Sept. 1989: 48.

2. Charles Krauthammer, "The Unipolar Moment," Foreign Affairs. 1 (Winter 1990­91): 23­33. See also Krauthammer, "A Second American Century?" Time 20 Dec. 1999; and "The Unipolar Moment, Revisited," National Interest 70 (Winter 2002­03):5­20.

3. Samuel P. Huntington, "The Clash of Civilizations?" Foreign Affairs (Summer 1993), Vol. 72, No. 3: 22­49.

4. Benjamin Barber, "Jihad vs. McWorld," Atlantic Monthly, (Mar. 1992): 53­65.

5. Hugh Poulton, "Islam, Ethnicity and State in the Balkans," Muslim Identity and the Balkan State ed. Hough Poulton and Suha Taji-Farouki (London: Hurst, 1997): 13­32.

6.. President Bill Clinton hesitated to become involved in Bosnia because he viewed it as part of a larger civilizational conflict. Robert Kaplan's book Balkan Ghosts: A Journey Through History was reportedly the cause of Clinton's hesitation.

7. Daniel Pipes, "Who Is the Enemy?" Commentary (Vol. 113, No. 1, Jan. 2002): 21-28

9. Paul Weyrich and William Lind, Why Islam Is a Threat to America and the West (Washington, D.C.: Free Congress Publications, 2002): 4.

11. The Netherlands has over four hundred mosques and thirty Muslim schools and a number have been the target of arson attacks, graffiti, and threatening telephone calls. "The Netherlands: Limits of Tolerance," Time 27 Sept. 2001.

12. Amr Mousa, cited in Al-Ahram Weekly (29 Nov.­5 Dec. 2001):1-2.

13. Lawrence Eagleburger interviewed on CNN 9 Sept. 2001. Cited in "MEDIA ADVISORY: Media March to War," FAIR (Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting) 17 Sept. 2001:1-2.

14. Ann Coulter, "This Is War: We Should Invade Their Countries," National Review (13 Sept. 2001).

15. William Pfaff, "The Reality of Human Affairs," World Policy Journal, 2 (1997). See also Jeane J. Kirkpatrick, "The Modernizing Imperative," Foreign Affairs, 72.4 (Sept./Oct. 1993): 22­24.

16. See also Seifudein Adem Husseim, "On the End of History and the Clash of Civilizations: A Dissenter's View" Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs 21.1 (2001): 25­38.

17. Chinua Achebe, Home and Exile (New York: Anchor Books, 2000): 91.

18. A detailed criticism of Huntington is also provided by Shireen T. Hunter in The Future of Islam and the West (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1998): 4­11.

19. Fouad Ajami, "The Summoning," Foreign Affairs 72.4 (Sept./Oct. 1993): 2­9.

20. See Shibley Telhami, "American Foreign Policy Toward the Muslim World," SAIS Review 221.2 (Summer-Fall 2001): 139­154; Roy Mottehedeh, "The Clash of Civilizations: An Islamicist's Critique," Harvard Middle Eastern and Islamic Review 2.1 (1995): 1­26.

21. Amartya Sen, "Civilizational Imprisonments," New Republic 10 June 2002.

22. Huntington, "The Clash of Civilizations?"

23. See, for example, John Lewis Gaddis, "On Moral Equivalency and Cold War History," Ethics and International Affairs 10 (1996):131­148, and his We Now Know: Rethinking Cold War History (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997).

24. Graham Fuller, "Islam, a Force for Change," Le Monde Diplomatique (Sept. 1999):17-18.

25. Bernard Lewis, "The Roots of Muslim Rage," Atlantic Monthly Sept. 1990: 47.

26. Ibid.: 50.

27. Ibid.: 58.

28. See, for example, Philip Hitti, History of the Arabs from the Earliest Times to the Present, rev. 10th ed. (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002) 196­98. See also Ibn Khaldun, The Muqddimah: An Introduction to History, trans. Franz Rosenthal (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1967).

29. For an overview of this history, see among others, Ira M. Lapidus, A History of Muslim Societies (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988). (A second edition appeared in 2002.)

30. See Yvonne Y. Haddad, Contemporary Islam and the Challenge of History (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1982): 13­23.

31. Dale F. Eickelman, "Mass Higher Education and the Religious Imagination in Contemporary Arab Societies," American Ethnologist 19.4 (Nov. 1992): 1­13.

32. George N. Atiyeh, ed., The Book in the Islamic World: The Written Word and Communication in the Middle East (Albany: State University of New York, 1995).

33. Dale F. Eickelman and James Piscatori, Muslim Politics (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1996): 5­11.

34. Robert Wuthnow, The Restructuring of American Religion: Society and Faith Since World War II (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1988): 241­268.

35. Graham E. Fuller and Ian O. Lesser, A Sense of Siege: The Geopolitics of Islam and the West (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1995):13­25 ; Fred Halliday, Islam and the Myth of Confrontation: Religion and Politics in the Middle East (London: I. B. Tauris, 1995): 104­132.

36. John Esposito and John O. Voll, Islam and Democracy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996); John Cooper, Ronald Nettler, and Mohamed Mahmoud, eds., Islam and Modernity: Muslim Intellectuals Respond (London: I. B. Tauris, 1998): especially 118­20.

37. See, for example, Martin Kramer, "Islam and Democracy," Arab Awakening and Islamic Revival, ed. Kramer (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 1996): 265­278.

38. Salman Rushdie, "Religion, as Ever, Is the Poison in India's Blood," Guardian (9 Mar. 2002).

39. Cardinal Giacomo Biffi, "Defender of the Faith," Time (October 30, 2000).

41. Ibid.

42. Cited in Andrea Lueg, "The Perception of Islam in Western Debate," The Next Threat: Western Perceptions of Islam, ed. Jochen Hippler and Andrea Lueg (London: Pluto Press, 1995): 9.

43. Michael Sells, The Bridge Betrayed: Religion and Genocide in Bosnia (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996): 144.

47. Jerry Falwell, interview, "60 Minutes," CBS (29 Sept. 2002). Falwell subsequently issued a formal apology for his offensive remarks. See Washington Times (14 Oct. 2002).

48. "War on Terror: Berlusconi," New Statesman, Vol. 14, Iss. 677: 25, (8 Oct. 2001).

49. Jose Casanova, Public Religions in the Modern World (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994): 216­34.

54. Osama Bin Laden, fax to Al-Jazeera Television, reprinted in the Guardian (24 Sept. 2001).

55. "Sacrificial Warriors," Time (24 Sept. 2001). See also Anwar Syed, "The Generation Gap," Dawn International (10 Mar. 2002).

56. Rep. Mervyn Dymally, "IMF Adjustment Policies Are an Absolute, Total Disaster," Executive Intelligence Review (12 Sept. 1997): 66­68.

57. Al-Khwarizmi was the scientist from whose name the term "algorithm" is derived, and the term "algebra" comes from his book, Al Jabr wa-al-Muqabilah.

60. Ira M.Lapidus, A History of Islamic Societies (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988): 643.

61. Robert D. Lee, Overcoming Tradition and Modernity: The Search for Islamic Authenticity (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1997): 191.

62. Bernard Lewis, "What Went Wrong?" Atlantic Monthly (Jan. 2002): 43­45.

63. Ibid.: 44.

64. R. Stephen Humphreys, Between Memory and Desire: The Middle East in a Troubled Age (Berkeley and London: University of California Press, 1999): 85.

65. Cyrus Bina, "Towards a New World Order: US Hegemony, Client States and the Islamic Alternative," Islam Muslims and the Modern State, ed. H. Mutalib and T. Hashmi (London: Macmillan, 1994): 3.

66. Gilles Kepel, Jihad: The Trail of Political Islam, trans. Anthony Roberts (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2002): 43­60. Much of the following discussion draws on this analysis.

67. See Bassam Tibi, The Challenge of Fundamentalism: Political Islam and the New World Disorder (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998): 114­115.

68. Lisa Anderson, "Fulfilling Prophecies: State Policy and Islamist Radicalism," Political Islam: Revolution, Radicalism or Reform, ed. John L. Esposito (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Reinner Publishers, 1997): 17­31.

69. Madawi al-Rasheed, A History of Saudi Arabia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002): 135.

70. Barnett R. Rubin, "Arab Islamists in Afghanistan," Political Islam: Revolution, Radicalism or Reform, ed. Esposito, 179­206.

71. Donald Petterson, Inside Sudan: Political Islam, Conflict, and Catastrophe (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1999): 10.

72. Ibrahim Karawan, "Arab States vs. Islamists: Past Record, Future Prospects," Policywatch, Washington Institute for Near East Policy (23 July 2001).

73. Olivier Roy and Carol Volk, trans., The Failure of Political Islam (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1994): 203.

74. Ibid.: 35­36.

75. Sami Zubaida, Islam, The People and the State (London: I. B. Tauris, 1995): 152­155.

76. R. Hrair Dekmejian, Islam in Revolution: Fundamentalism in the Arab World (Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1995): 46-47.

77. Daniel Brumberg, Reinventing Khomeini: The Struggle for Reform in Iran (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 2001): 150-151.

78. Asli Aydintasbas, "The Malaise of Turkish Democracy," Middle East Report 209 (Winter 1998): 32­35.

79. See, for example, Beverley Milton-Edwards, "A Temporary Alliance with the Crown: The Islamic Response in Jordan," Islamic Fundamentalisms and the Gulf Crisis, James Piscatori ed. (Chicago: The Fundamentalism Project of the American Academy of Arts and Science, 1991): 88­108; and Gehad Auda, "An Uncertain Response: The Islamic Movement in Egypt," Islamic Fundamentalisms and the Gulf Crisis, James Piscatori ed.: 109­130.

80. Roy, The Failure of Political Islam, 64.

81. This is also noted in Roger Owen, State, Power and Politics in the Making of the Modern Middle East, 2nd ed. (New York: Routledge, 2000: 174.

82. Reuel Marc Gerecht, "The Gospel According to Osama bin Laden," Atlantic Monthly (Jan. 2002): 46-48.

83. Roy, The Failure of Political Islam: 75-88.

84. Tibi, The Challenge of Fundamentalism : 158-159.

85. This was the argument of 'Abd al-Salam Faraj in his al-Faridah al-Gha'ibah. For a translation, see Johannes J. G. Jansen, trans., The Neglected Duty: The Creed of Sadat's Assassins and Islamic Resurgence in the Middle East (New York: Macmillan, 1986): especially 159­234.

86. Barry Wain and John Mc Beth, "War on Terrorism: A Perilous Choice for the Presidents," Far Eastern Economic Review 3 Oct. 2002. The Singapore government has said that Jemaah Islamiah aims to establish an Islamic state out of Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei, Indonesia, and Mindanao (southern Philippines).

87. Roy, The Failure of Political Islam: 194­203.

88. Ibid.: 194­203.

89. Robert Fisk, "This Is Not a War on Terror," Independent (25 Sept. 2001).

90. Bassma Kodmani-Darwish, "International Security and the Forces of Nationalism and Fundamentalism," New Dimensions in International Security, Adelphi Paper No. 266, London: International Institute for Strategic Studies (Winter 1991­92): 45.

91. UNDP Arab Human Development Report 2002, New York: United Nations Publications, 2002, 26.

92. Ibid., 27.

93. Bernard Lewis, "Islam and Liberal Democracy," Atlantic Monthly (Feb. 1993): 89.

94. World Bank Report, Helping Countries Combat Corruption: The Role of the World Bank in Poverty Reduction and Economic Management, Washington D.C.: World Bank (September 1997): 4.

95. See, for example, Qutb, Fi Zilal al-Qur'an [In the Shade of the Qur'an], vol. 1 (Beirut: Dar al-Shuruq, 1399 A.H./1979): 60­61, 294­95.

96. See, for example, Mehdi Bazargan, Mohammad Yusefi, trans., The Inevitable Victory, 2nd ed., Houston, Tex.: Free Islamic Literatures, 1979) 30 et passim.

97. See, for example, Muhammad Asad, The Principles of State and Government in Islam (Gibraltar: Dar al-Andalus, 1980): 30, 35­36.

98. Principle 2 of the constitution acknowledges that God has "the faculty to rule and implement the divine law," but Principle 3 affirms that the people should participate "in determining their political, economic, social, and cultural destiny." The constitution also provides for a popularly elected assembly (Principle 31) and referenda on issues that are submitted "directly to the people for judgement" (Principle 59). "Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran," Middle East Journal 34.2 (Spring 1980): 188­98, 194.

99. Bassam Tibi, "Democracy and Democratization in Islam: The Quest for Islamic Enlightenment," Universitas, 4 (1994): 246.

100. For the argument that political cultures may evolve and are an important variable in the democratization process, see Michael C. Hudson, "The Political Cultural Approach to Arab Democratization: The Case for Bringing It Back in, Carefully," (eds.), Political Liberalization and Democratization in the Arab World, ed. Rex Brynen, Bahgat Korany, and Paul Noble, vol.1, (Boulder and London: Lynne Reinner Publishers, 1995): 61-76.

101. Lapidus, A History of Islamic Societies: 643.

102. For further discussion of this point see Muzaffar Iqbal, "Islam and the West in the Emerging World Order" Muslims and the West, ed. Zafar Ishaq Ansari and John Esposito, (Islamabad: Islamabad International Islamic University, 2001): 237.

103. Ali Mazrui, "Pretender to Universalism: Western Culture in a Globalizing Age," in Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, 21.1 (April 2001): 12-24.